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Henry Viii Essay, Research Paper From any point of position the devastation of the English monasteries by Henry VIII must be regarded as one of the great events of the 16th century. They were looked upon in England, at the clip of Henry # 8217 ; s breach with Rome, as one of the great ramparts of the apostolic system. The monastics had been called # 8220 ; the great standing ground forces of Rome. # 8221 ; One of the first practical consequences of the premise of the highest religious powers by the male monarch was the supervising by royal edict of the ordinary Episcopal trials, and the assignment of a layperson # 8212 ; Thomas Cromwell # 8212 ; as the male monarch # 8217 ; s vicar-general in spirituals, with particular authorization to see the cloistered houses, and to convey them into line with the new order of things. This was in 1534 ; and, some clip prior to the December of that twelvemonth, agreements were already being made for a systematic trial. We will write a custom essay sample on Henry Viii Essay Research Paper From any or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A papers, dated 21 January, 1535, allows Cromwell to carry on the visit through # 8220 ; commissaries # 8221 ; # 8212 ; instead than personally # 8212 ; as the curate is said to be at that clip excessively busy with # 8220 ; the personal businesss of the whole kingdom. # 8221 ; It is now practically admitted that, even prior to the issue of these committees of trial, the undertaking of stamp downing some, if so non all, of the cloistered constitutions in the state, had non merely been broached, but had become portion of Henry # 8217 ; s practical political relations. It is good to retrieve this, as it throws an interesting and slightly unexpected light upon the first disintegrations: the monasteries were doomed prior to these trials, and non in effect of them, as we have been asked to believe harmonizing to the traditional narrative. Parliament was to meey early in the undermentioned twelvemonth, 1536, and, with the double object of refilling an dog-tired treasury and of expe cting resistance on the portion of the spiritual to the proposed ecclesiastical alterations, harmonizing to the royal design, the Commons were to be asked to allow Henry the ownerships of at least the smaller monasteries. It must hold been felt, nevertheless, by the astute Cromwell, who is credited with the first construct of the design, that to win, a undertaking such as this must be sustained by strong yet simple grounds calculated to appeal to the popular head. Some nice stalking-horse had to be found for showing the proposed step of suppression and arrogation to the state, and it can barely now be doubted that the device of melanizing the characters of the monastics and nuns was intentionally resorted to. The trial opened seemingly in the summer of 1535, although the visitatorial powers of the bishops were non suspended until the eighteenth of the undermentioned September. Preachers were furthermore commissioned to travel over the state in the early fall, in order, by their vituperations, to educate public sentiment against the monastics. These pulpit speechmakers were of three kinds: # 8220 ; railers # 8221 ; , who declaimed against the spiritual as # 8220 ; dissemblers, magicians, and idle drones, etc. # 8221 ; ; # 8220 ; sermonizers # 8221 ; , who said the monastics # 8220 ; made the land unprofitable # 8221 ; ; and those who told the people that, # 8220 ; if the abbeys went down, the male monarch would neer desire any revenue enhancements again. # 8221 ; This last was a favorite statement of Cranmer, in his discourses at St. Paul # 8217 ; s Cross. The work forces employed by Cromwell # 8212 ; the agents entrusted with the undertaking of acquiring up the needed grounds # 8212 ; were chiefly four, Layton, Leigh, Aprice, and London. They were good fitted for their work ; and the charges brought against the good name of some at least of the monasteries, by these chosen envoies of Cromwell are, it must be confessed, sufficiently awful, although even their studies surely do non bear out the modern impression of sweeping corruptness. The trial seems to hold been conducted consistently, and to hold passed through three clearly defined phases. During the summer the houses in the West of England were subjected to scrutiny ; and this part of the work came to an terminal in September, when Layton and Leigh arrived at Oxford and Cambridge severally. In October and November the visitants changed the field of their labors to the eastern and southeasterly territories ; and in December we find Layton progressing through the Midland counties to Lichfield, where he met Leigh, who had finished his work in the spiritual houses of Huntingdon and Lincolnshire. Thence they proceeded together to the North, and the metropolis of York was reached on 11 January, 1536. But with all their hastiness, to which they were urged by Cromwell, they had non proceeded really far in the work of their northern review before the meeting of Parliament. From clip to clip, whilst on their work of review, the visitants, and chiefly London and Leigh, sent brief studies to their employers. Practically all the accusals made against the good name of the monastics and nuns are contained in the letters sent in this manner by the visitants, and in the papers, or paperss, known as the # 8220 ; Comperta Monastica # 8221 ; , which were drawn up at the clip by the same visitants and forwarded to their head, Cromwell. No other grounds as to the province of the monasteries at this clip is forthcoming, and the enquirer into the truth of these accusals is driven back ultmately upon the worth of these visitants # 8217 ; words. It is easy, of class, to disregard inconvenient informants as being unworthy of recognition, but in this instance a mere survey of these letters and paperss is rather sufficient to project considerable uncertainty upon their testimony as entirely unworthy of belief. It is of class impossible to come in into the inside informations of the trial. We must, hence, base on balls to the 2nd measure in the disintegration. Parliament met on 4 February, 1536, and the head concern it was called upon to transact was the consideration and passing of the act stamp downing the smaller spiritual houses. It may be good to province precisely what is known about this affair. We know for certain that the male monarch # 8217 ; s proposal to stamp down the smaller spiritual houses gave rise to a long argument in the Lower House, and that Parliament passed the step with great reluctance. It is more than singular, furthermore, that in the preamble of the Act itself Parliament is careful to throw the full duty for the step upon the male monarch, and to declare, if words mean anything at all, that they took the truth of the charges against the good name of the spiritual, entirely upon the male monarch # 8217 ; s # 8220 ; declaration # 8221 ; that he knew the charges to be true. It must be remembered, excessively, that one simple fact proves that the existent accusals or # 8220 ; comperta # 8221 ; # 8212 ; whether in the signifier of the visitants # 8217 ; notes, or of the fabulous # 8220 ; Black-book # 8221 ; # 8212 ; could neer hold been placed before Parliament for its consideration in item, still less for its critical scrutiny and judgement. We have the # 8220 ; Comperta # 8221 ; paperss # 8212 ; the findings of the visitants, whatever they may be deserving, whilst on their unit of ammunitions, among the province documents # 8212 ; and it may be easy seen that no differentiation whatever is made in them between the greater and lesser houses. All are, to utilize a common look, # 8220 ; tarred with the same coppice # 8221 ; ; all, that is, are every bit smirched by the foul suggestions of Layton and Leigh, of London and Aprice. # 8220 ; The thought that the smaller monasteries instead than the larger were peculiar residences of frailty # 8221 ; , writes Dr. Gairdner, the editor of the State documents of this period, # 8220 ; is non borne out by the # 8216 ; Comperta # 8217 ; . # 8221 ; Yet the preamble of the very Act, which suppressed the smaller monasteries because of their barbarous life, declares positively that # 8220 ; in the great and grave Monasteries of the kingdom # 8221 ; faith was good ascertained and God good served. Can it be imagined for a minute that this averment could hold found its manner into the Act of Parliament, had the studies, or # 8220 ; Comperta # 8221 ; , of the visitants been laid upon the tabular array of the House of Commons for the review of the members? We are accordingly compelled by this fact to accept as history the history of the affair given in the preamble of the first Act of disintegration: viz. that the step was passed on the strength of the male monarch # 8217 ; s # 8220 ; declaration # 8221 ; that the charges against the smaller houses were true, and o n that alone. In its concluding form the first step of suppression simply enacted that all the spiritual houses non possessed of an income of more than 200 lbs a twelvemonth should be given to the Crown. The caputs of such houses were to have pensions, and the spiritual, despite the alleged corruption of some, were to be admitted to the larger and more observant monasteries, or to be licensed to move as secular priests. The step of depravity fixed by the Act was therefore a monetary 1. All cloistered constitutions which fell below the 200 lbs a twelvemonth criterion of # 8220 ; good life # 8221 ; were to be given to the male monarch to be dealt with at his # 8220 ; pleasance, to the honor of God and the wealth of the realm. # 8221 ; This money bound at one time rendered it necessary, as a first measure in the way of disintegration, to determine which houses came within the operation of the Act. Equally early as April, 1536 ( less than a month from the passing of the step ) , we find assorted committees of functionaries and state gentlemen appointed in effect to do studies of the spiritual houses, and instructions issued for their counsel. The returns made by these commissioners are of the highest importance in finding the moral province of the spiritual houses at the clip of their disintegration. It is now beyond difference that the accusals of Cromwell # 8217 ; s visitants were made prior to, non after ( as most authors have mistakenly supposed ) , the fundamental law of these assorted committees of aristocracy and functionaries. The chief intent for which the commissioners were nominated was of class to happen out what houses possessed an income of less than 200 lbs a twelvemonth ; and to take over such in th e male monarch # 8217 ; s name, as now by the late Act lawfully belonging to His Majesty. The aristocracy and functionaries were nevertheless instructed to happen out and describe upon # 8220 ; the conversation of the lives # 8221 ; of the spiritual ; or in other words they were specially directed to analyze into the moral province of the houses visited. Unfortunately, relatively few of the returns of these assorted committees are now known to be ; although some have been discovered, which were unknown to Dr. Gairdner when he made his # 8220 ; Calendar # 8221 ; of the paperss of 1536. Fortunately, nevertheless, the extant studies trade expressly with some of the very houses against which Layton and Leigh had made their pestiferous suggestions. Now that the suppression was resolved upon and made legal, it did non affair to Henry or Cromwell that the inmates should be described as # 8220 ; evil livers # 8221 ; ; and so the new commissioners returned the religious of the same ho uses as being truly # 8220 ; of good virtuous conversation # 8221 ; , and this, non in the instance of one house or territory merely, but, as Gairdner says, # 8220 ; the characters of the inmates are about uniformly good. # 8221 ; To fix for the response of the expected spoils, what was known as the Augmentation Office was established, and Sir Thomas Pope was made its first financial officer, 24 April, 1536. On this same twenty-four hours instructions were issued for the counsel of the assorted committees in the work of fade outing the monasteries. Harmonizing to these waies, the commissioners, holding interviewed the superior and shown him the # 8220 ; Act of Dissolution # 8221 ; , were to do all the functionaries of the house swear to reply truthfully any inquiries put to them. They were so to exmine into the moral and fiscal province of the constitution, and to describe upon it, every bit good as upon the figure of the spiritual and # 8220 ; the conversation of their lives. # 8221 ; After that, an stock list of all the goods, movables, and home base was to be taken, and an # 8220 ; indentation # 8221 ; or opposite number of the same was to be left with the superior, dating from 1 March, 1536, because from that day of the month all had passed into the ownership of the male monarch. Thenceforward the higher-up was to be held responsible for the safe detention of the male monarch # 8217 ; s belongings. At the same clip the commissioners were to publish their bids to the caputs of the houses non to have any more rents in the name of the convent, nor to pass any money, except for necessary disbursals, until the king # 8217 ; s pleasance should be known. They were, nevertheless, to be purely enjoined to go on their attention over the lands, and # 8220 ; to seed and cultivate # 8221 ; as before, until such tme as some male monarch # 8217 ; s husbandman should be appointed and alleviate them of this responsibility. As for the monastics, the officer was told # 8220 ; to direct those that will stay in faith to other houses with letters to the governors, and those that wish to travel to the universe to my Godhead of Canterbury and the Godhead Chancellor of the Exchequer for # 8221 ; their letters to have some benefices or lifes when such could be found for them. One funny fact about the disintegration of the smaller monasteries deserves particular notice. No Oklahoman had the male monarch obtained ownership of these houses under the money value of 200 lbs a twelvemonth, than he commenced to refound some # 8220 ; in sempiternity # 8221 ; under a new charter. In this manner no fewer than 52 spiritual houses in assorted parts of England gained a impermanent reprieve from extinction. The cost, nevertheless, was considerable, non entirely to the spiritual, but to their friends. The belongings was once more confiscated and the spiritual were eventually swept off, before they had been able to refund the amounts borrowed in order to buy this really slight favor at the custodies of the royal legal owner. In difficult hard currency the financial officer of the Court of Augmentation acknowledges to hold received, as simply # 8220 ; portion payment of the assorted amounts of money due to the male monarch for mulcts or composings for the acceptance an d continuation # 8221 ; of merely thirty-one of these refounded monasteries, some 5948 lbs, 6s. 8d. or barely less, likely, than 60,000 lbs of 1910 money. Sir Thomas Pope, he financial officer of the Court of Augmentation, artlessly added that he has non counted the arrears due to the office under this caput, # 8220 ; since all and each of the said monast Eries, before the stopping point of the history, have come into the King’s custodies by resignation, or by the authorization of Parliament have been added to the augmentation of the royal revenues.† â€Å"For this reason† , he adds, â€Å"the King has remitted all amounts of money still due to him, as the residue of their mulcts for his royal toleration.† The amounts paid for the fresh foundations â€Å"in perpetuity† , which in world as the event showed meant merely the reprieve of a twosome of old ages or so, varied well. As a regulation they represented about three times the one-year gross of the house ; but sometimes, as in the instance of St. Mary’s, Winchester, which was fined 333 lbs 6s. 8d. , for leave to go on, it was reestablished with the loss of some of its richest ownerships. It is slightly hard to gauge right the figure of spiritual houses which passed into the male monarch # 8217 ; s ownership in virtuousness of the Act of Parliament of 1536. Stowe # 8217 ; s estimation is by and large deemed sufficiently near the grade, and he says: # 8220 ; the figure of the houses so suppressed was 376. # 8221 ; In regard to the value of the belongings, Stowe # 8217 ; s estimation would besides look to be well right when he gives 30,000 lbs, or some 300,000 lbs of 1910 money, as the annual income derived from the confiscated lands. There can be no uncertainty, nevertheless, that later the promises of big one-year grosss from the old spiritual estates proven illusory, and that, in malice of the rack-renting of the Crown husbandmans, the cloistered estates furnished less money for the royal bag than they had antecedently done under the thrifty direction and personal supervising of their former proprietors. As to the value of the spoils which came from the wrecked and demolished houses, where the waste was everyplace so great, it is of course hard to measure the value of the money home base, and gems which were sent in sort into the male monarch # 8217 ; s exchequer, and the returns from the sale of the lead, bells, stock, furniture, and even the cloistered edifices. It is, nevertheless, moderately certain that Lord Herbert, following Stowe, has placed the sum really received at excessively high a figure. Not, of class, that these goods were non deserving immensely more than the unit of ammunition 100,000 lbs, at which he estimates them ; but nil like that amount was really received or acknowledged by Sir Thomas Pope, as financial officer of the Court of Augmentation. Corruptness, without a uncertainty, existed everyplace, from the lowest attender of the sing commissioner to the highest tribunal functionary. But leting for the countless ways in which the cloistered ownerships could be plundered in the procedure of transference to their new owner, it may non be much beyond the grade to set these # 8220 ; Robin Hood # 8217 ; s pennyworths # 8221 ; , as Stowe calls them, at about 1,000,000 lbs of 1910 money. Something must needfully be said of the existent procedure which was followed by the Crown agents in fade outing these lesser monasteries. It was much the same in every instance, and it was a slightly long procedure, since the work was non all done in a twenty-four hours. The axial rotations of history, sent into the Augmentation Office by the commissioners, show that it was often a affair of six to seven weks before any house was eventually dismantled and its inmates had all been turned out of doors. The main commissioners paid two official visits to the scene of operations during the advancement of the work. On the first twenty-four hours they assembled the superior and his topics in the Chapter House, announced to the community and its dependants their at hand day of reckoning ; called for and defaced the convent seal, the symbol of corporate being, without which no concern could be transacted ; desecrated the church ; took ownership of the best home base and vestments # 8220 ; u nto the King # 8217 ; s use # 8221 ; ; measured the lead upon the roof and calculated its value when melted ; counted the bells ; and appraised the goods and movables of the community. Then they passed on to the scene of their following operations, go forthing behind them certain low-level officers and workingmans to transport out the designed devastation by depriving the roofs and drawing down the troughs and rain pipes ; runing the lead into hogs and fresh fishs, throwing down the bells, interrupting them with sledge-hammers and packing the metal into barrels ready for the visit of the speculator and his command for the spoils. This was followed by the work of roll uping the furniture and selling it, together with the window frames, shutters, and doors by public auction or private stamp. When all this had been done, the commissioners returned to scrutinize the histories and to fulfill themselves by and large that the work of desolation had been accomplished to the male monarch # 8217 ; s contentment # 8212 ; that the nest had been destroyed and the birds scattered # 8212 ; that what had been a memorial of architectural beauty in the yesteryear was now a # 8220 ; bare roofless choir, where tardily the sweet birds sang. # 8221 ; No Oklahoman had the procedure of devastation begun at the same time all over the state than the people began at last to recognize that the benefits likely to accrue to them out of the loot were most illusive. When this was understood, it was foremost proposed to show a request to the male monarch from the Lords and Commons, indicating out the apparent harm which must be done to the state at big if the step was carried out to the full ; and inquiring that the procedure of suppression should be at one time stopped, and that the lesser houses, which had non yet been dissolved under the authorization of the Act of 1536, shold be allowed to stand. Nothing, of class, came of this effort. Henry # 8217 ; s appetency was but whetted by what had come to him, and he merely hungered for more of the spoils of the Church and the hapless. The action of the Parliament in 1536 in allowing the first step to go jurisprudence made it in world much more hard for Henry to pull back ; and in more senses than one it paved the manner for the general disintegration. Here and at that place in the state active opposition to the work of devastation was organized, and in the instance of Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and the North by and large, the popular rise of the # 8220 ; pilgrims journey of grace # 8221 ; was caused in the chief, or at least in great step, by the desire of the people at big to salvage the spiritual houses from pitiless devastation. The failure of the rebellion of the # 8220 ; Pilgrimage of Grace # 8221 ; was celebrated by the executing of 12 archimandrites, and, to utilize Henry # 8217 ; s ain words, by a sweeping # 8220 ; tying-up # 8221 ; of monastics. By a new and clever procedure, suitably called # 8220 ; Dissolution by Attainder # 8221 ; , an abbey was considered by the royal advisors to fall into the male monarch # 8217 ; s custodies by the supposed or constructive lese majesty of its superior. In this manner several of the larger abbeys, with all their gr osss and ownerships, came into Henry # 8217 ; s custodies as a effect of the # 8220 ; Pilgrimage of Grace. # 8221 ; The Parliament of 1536, it will be remembered, had granted Henry the ownership merely of the houses the one-year value of which was less than 200 lbs. What happened in the three old ages that followed the passing of the At was briefly this: the male monarch was sick satisfied with the existent consequences of what he had thought would turn out a regular gold mine. Personally, possibly, he had non gained every bit much as he had hoped for from the disintegrations which had taken topographic point. The belongings of the monastics someway seemed cursed by its beginning ; it passed from his control by a thousand-and-one channels, and he was shortly thirsting for a greater award, which, as the event showed, he was every bit unable to guard for his ain utilizations. By his instructions, visitants were one time more set in gesture against the larger abbeys, in which, harmonizing to the Act of 1536, faith was # 8220 ; right good maintain and observed. # 8221 ; Not holding received any auth orization from Parliament to authorise the extension of their proceedings, the royal agents, eager to win a topographic point in his favor, were busy up and down the state, wheedling, haling, commanding, and endangering the members of the spiritual houses in order to coerce them to give up their monasteries unto the King # 8217 ; s Majesty. As Dr. Gairdner puts it: # 8220 ; by assorted humanistic disciplines and means the caputs of these constitutions were induced to give up, and on occasion when an archimandrite was found, as in the instance of Woburn, to hold committed lese majesty in the sense of the recent legislative acts, the house ( by a stretch of the oppressive Torahs ) was forfeited to the male monarch by his civil death. But civil deaths were surely the exclusion, resignations being the general rule. # 8221 ; The fall of 1537 saw the beginning of the autumn of the friaries in England. For some ground, perchance because of their poorness, they had non been brought under the Act of 1536. For a twelvemonth after the # 8220 ; Pilgrimage of Grace # 8221 ; few disintegrations of houses, other than those which came to the male monarch by the civil death of their higher-ups, are recorded. With the banquet of St. Michael, 1537, nevertheless, besides the convents of mendicants the work of procuring of procuring, by some agencies or other, the resignation of the greater houses went on quickly. The instructions given to the royal agents are clear. They were, by all methods known to them, to acquire the spiritual # 8220 ; volitionally to consent and agree # 8221 ; to their ain extinction. It was merely when they found # 8220 ; any of the said caputs and convents, so appointed to be dissolved, so willful and obstinate that they would in no wise # 8221 ; hold to subscribe and seal their ain death- warrant, that the commissioners were authorized by Henry # 8217 ; s instructions to # 8220 ; take ownership of the house # 8221 ; and belongings by force. And whilst therefore engaged, the royal agents were ordered to declare that the male monarch had no design whatsoever upon the cloistered belongings or system as such, or any desire to procure the entire suppression of the spiritual houses. They were instructed at all costs to set a halt to such rumors, which were of course rife all over the state at this clip. This they did ; and the unscrupulous Dr. Layton declared that he had told the people everyplace that # 8220 ; in this they absolutely slandered the King their natural lord. # 8221 ; He bade them non to believe such studies ; and he # 8220 ; commanded the archimandrites and priors to put in the stocks # 8221 ; such as related such untrue things. It was, nevertheless, as may be imagined, hard plenty to stamp down the rumor whilst the existent thing was traveling on. In 1538 and 1539 some 150 monasteries of work forces appear to hold signed away their corporate being and their belongings, and by a formal title handed over all rights to the male monarch. When the work had progressed sufficiently the new Parliament, which met in April, 1539, after detecting that frogmans archimandrites and others had yielded up their houses to the male monarch, # 8220 ; without restraint, coercion, or irresistible impulse # 8221 ; , confirmed these resignations and vested all cloistered belongings therefore obtained in the Crown. Finally in the fall of that twelvemonth, Henry # 8217 ; s victory over the cloistered orders was completed by the atrocious deceases for constructive lese majesty of the three great archimandrites of Glastonbury, Colchester, and Reading. And so, as one author has said, # 8220 ; before the winter of 1540 had set in, the last of the abbeys had been added to the ruins with which the land was strewn from one terminal to the other. # 8221 ; It is hard, of class, to gauge the exact figure of spiritual and spiritual houses suppressed at this clip in England. Puting all beginnings of information together, it seems that the monastics and regular canons expelled from the greater monasteries were about 3200 in figure ; the mendicants, 1800 ; and the nuns, 1560. If to these should be added the figure of those affected by the first Act of Parliament, it is likely non far from the truth to state that the figure of spiritual work forces and adult females expelled from their places by the suppression were, in unit of ammunition Numberss, about 8000. Besides these, of class, there were likely more than ten times that figure of people turned adrift who were their dependants, or otherwise obtained a life in their service. If it is hard to find, with any certainty, the figure of the spiritual in cloistered England at the clip of the disintegration of the monasteries, it is still more so to give any accurate estimation of the belongings involved. Speed calculated the one-year value of the full belongings, which passed into Henry # 8217 ; s custodies at some 171,312 lbs. Other ratings have placed it at a higher figure, so that a modern computation of the one-year value at 200,000 lbs, or some 2,000,000 lbs of 1910 money, is likely non inordinate. Hence, as a unsmooth computation, it may be taken that at the autumn of the monasteries an income of approximately two million lbs sterling a twelvemonth, of the 1910 money value, was taken from the Church and the hapless and transferred to the royal bag. It may, nevertheless, be at one time stated that Henry obviously neer derived anything like such a amount from the dealing. The capital value was so diminished by gratuitous grants, gross revenues of lands at nominal values, and in legion other ways, that in fact, for the 11 old ages from 1536 to 1547, the Augmentation Office accounts show that the king merely drew an mean annual income of 37,000 lbs, or 370,000 lbs of 1910 money, from belongings which, in the custodies of the monastics, had likely produced five times the sum. Equally far as can be gathered from the histories still extant, the entire grosss of the male monarch from the cloistered arrogations from April, 1536, to Michaelmas, 1547, was about 13 million and a half of 1910 money, to which must be added about a million sterling, the runing value of the cloistered home base. Of this amount, go forthing out of computation the home base and gems, non rather three 1000000s were spent by the male monarch personally ; 600,000 l bs was spent upon the royal castles, and about half a million on the family of the Prince of Wales. More than five 1000000s sterling are accounted for under the caput of war disbursals, and about 700,000 lbs were spent on seashore defense mechanism. Pensions to spiritual individuals account for 330,000 lbs ; and one funny point of 6000 lbs is entered as spent # 8220 ; to procure the resignation of the Abbey of Abingdon. # 8221 ;

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buy custom Aristotle essay Aristotle asserts that the main objective of any person living is that they attain happiness at the end of it all. In order to achieve such happiness, all their actions ought to be done in a manner that is aimed at good. This fact stresses that the achievement should be virtuous. People are incapable of doing things that they consider bad for them. The actions that are undertaken by human beings are not the main goals. Rather, they only act as a means to a higher purpose. Human beings aim at the attainment of happiness for its own sake. It is not because it accomplishes any other thing. Due to this, happiness is the ultimate mission in the life of an individual and, therefore, should take a virtuous path. Since virtue is something that makes people capable of performing their functions well and in a succinct manner, it is, therefore, the virtue of any person that enables human beings attain the habits that reflect their goodness. Deriving from ethical virtues concern with feelings and actions, a person should always maintain the appropriate feelings during the appropriate times and for the correct purpose (Irwin). It is because a person is capable of making an error simply due to their movement towards the incorrect feeling, timing or reasons in a way that makes them either excess or deficient. There are two types of virtues, intellectual and ethical. Intellectual virtue originates and grows from education as it needs knowledge and time. Moral virtue originates from habit. Moral virtues can, therefore, be said to arise in people by nature. Everything that comes to people through nature has to be learned primarily and later exhibited in a particular activity. Virtues are achieved by implementing them in life since the things people learn before doing them have to be learnt by doing them. It is how a good virtue is produed and damaged. Through committing the acts that people do in their transactions with others, they become just or unjust. Also, by performing the acts that they do in the presence of danger, and being adapted to feel fear or confidence, they become brave or faint-hearted. This notion also applies to appetites and feeling of rage, some individuals become calm and good-tempered, others become self-indulgent and irritable by conducting themselves in one way or an other in the suitable situations. Therefore, conditions of character originate from similar activities. This is the reason the activities people show have to be of a certain kind. It happens because the condition of a character corresponds to the differences between them (Irwin). The things found in the soul are of three types, passions, faculties, and conditions of character. Passions mean the feelings that are generally accompanied by pleasure or pain. Faculties mean the things in virtues that have the potential of feeling angry, pity, and happy among others. The condition of character implies the things in virtue that people well or badly relate to passion. For example, in relation to anger, people feel it violently or too weakly, and well if they feel it moderately. People do not receive praises or blames for their passions for a person cannot be accused for feeling angry but may be blamed for feeling it in a certain way. However, for virtues and vices, people may be blamed or praised. Also, people experience annoyance or fear without choosing. The virtues, however, involve making choices. The virtue of a person is the condition of character which makes results in their being good individuals and which lets them do their own work properly. The excellence of a horse makes a horse both good in itself and good at running and at carrying its rider and awaiting the attack of the enemy (Irwin). From the teachings of Aristotle concerning the relationship between feelings and virtue, however, there is nothing stated by him regarding what makes feelings either voluntary or involuntary. Rather, he places virtually all the focus on the issue of actions. He simply considers that the voluntary ones that are praised and blamed (Irwin). Actions and feelings may be voluntary and may be considered as being worthy of the blame or praise that they receive. To Aristotle, there is no particular contribution from the agent or the person that is affected. This fact demonstrates an effect of involuntariness in that a person simply acts in the light of external influence (Irwin). Furthermore, having the consideration that the aspects of ethical virtue are subjected to their determination by a prudent person, Aristotle leaves human beings in a state that is not settled. It lacks the finality that would qualify it as being a reasonable representation and explanation of the actions and feelings of human beings. It is because there is often a certain inconsistency between the various reasoning of different persons. Due to this fact, some of the actions or feelings that are committed or felt by human beings are considered as simply bad or good. For instance, the actions and feelings that have been declared as bad in every aspect include murder, malice, envy, and theft. The assertion by Aristotle is that the ultimate goal of every human being is the achievement of happiness. As a result, people ought to construe the world and implement their actions in a way that promotes virtue. It is only in doing this that the individual can attain the happiness that they desire in their lives. Feelings and actions are intertwined in a manner that a person is incapable of executing actions that are right or virtuous if they harbor inappropriate or bad feelings. 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Logic and thought Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Logic and thought - Essay Example Astrologers try to justify their beliefs by claiming that their work is based on science, but science is based on fact while astrology is not. Statistical studies can give support to the claims of astrology, but this is impossible in this case because astrology cannot be measured. 2 line A: Since the middle of the twentieth century, countless scientific studies that have ultimately supported the basic principles of astrology have been conducted. B: Michel Gauquelin, a noted French statistician, spent much of his life using statistical methods to investigate astrology; he established the truth of a number of claims, including the Mars effect, which proved a relationship between the planet Mars and outstanding athletes. †¢ Astrology needs to be taken more seriously as an art and science that can contribute to human well-being. This argument is incorrect because it cannot be proven 100 percent that scientific studies support the views of astrology. The fallacy for this argument is a genetic fallacy. For the French statistician, he cannot prove his theory of the Mars effect because other factors may have influenced the results. Astrology is linked with destiny, personality, human affairs, and natural events.

Argument of Value Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Argument of Value - Essay Example But, as the movie tries to portray, it never takes itself seriously. All the fun does not get lost owing to the apparent upheavals in the lives of the characters. There is a definitive degree of fresh air in the treatment of the main characters. From the very beginning, the viewer is drawn into the intricacies of the characters, their joys and life. Even in the deepest melancholy, there are streaks of hope and happiness. In that sense, this movie has veered away from the staple comedy movies which lack poignant humor, but cover it up with condescending laughter. The movie exposes the tumultuous underbelly of human emotions with a fine serving of humor. This movie is perched between a razor sharp psychological drama on one hand and comedy on another. The film has a very upbeat title, which suggests the likeliness of having a generic bent towards the creation of a happy atmosphere: that is not very serious. It has all the ingredients of a nice movie, with the creation of sequences that exude positive spirit. A hero who is full of faults, a heroine with very doubtful credentials, the Christmas streets, the snow flaked roads are a constant reminder of the impending festivities. Throw on top of that, a dance competition and a football game, the movie tries to cover all the bases for a happy Hollywood film. ... Robert De Niro has played a delicious role as the father, who is torn among different problems. He runs an illegal gambling racket out of his parlour. He has a very supportive mother, who keeps him company. However, he is supposed to stay away from his wife and has to visit a doctor. All of the characters are obsessed with something in their lives, with sports being a big obsession. There is a tradition of disruptive violence, as the crowd identifies the game with their identity. The father of the hero has been banned from appearing in the matches due to the bouts of rage, which were experienced while viewing the match. One of the central characters in the movie is a young widow called as Tiffany. She is a good looking woman who lives in the garage of her parent’s home. She is preparing for a dancing competition, with the help of the hero. They bond over a dinner and she agrees to help him reunite him with his wife. The strength of the film lies in the differential treatment b eing given to the generic comic situations. Although, there is a lot of pain in the lives of the characters, there is sense of joy that runs throughout the fabric of the film. There are a number of scenes that would be very difficult even in real lives, but the handling of the situations has rendered the scenes funny. Some of the examples of such scenes; as the fighting in the diner that spreads onto the street: and also among the crowd wearing the Halloween dress. The film goes over the edge at times, but never fails to maintain the humorous simplicity in the storyline. The narrative is contextual and also very relevant due to the essential foresight being provided into the human heart. The design of the story has been calibrated with a lot of alacrity, so as to incite the maximum level of

International Business and Global Strategy Essay Example for Free

International Business and Global Strategy Essay In-Depth Market Analysis of two target markets: China and Argentina China is a great world exporter receiving large amounts of foreign investment and is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Entering the market therefore will be easier than when China was not part of the WTO. According to The World Fact Book (2010) by 2009, China had a population of 1. 34 billion. Although its population growth is not very high at 0. 49, the population is the highest in the world and provides for ample market for Body Shop International Plc (BSI plc. ). China has an income distribution of 51. 10. This indicates that the distribution of purchasing power is standardized. BSI plc does not have to specialize in its clientele and can anticipate a wide market for its products. China’s mean age stands at 35. 2. In the age demographics, China’s largest age bracket is the 15-64 yeas age category. This makes up for 71. 9% of the population as in 2008 where men were estimated at 491,513,378 and women at 465,020,030 (The World Fact Book. 2010). For BSI plc this creates a large market since beauty products are usually consumed by this age group. In terms of education, China population is educated with a literacy rate of 92% (The World Fact Book. 010) . The overall enrollment for elementary, secondary and higher education is at 69. 1. This is a good indicator that beauty products would be well received and are a part of the population that can appreciate its use. China’s growth of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was at 8. 70 in 2009. This GDP has been on a rising trajectory and is expected to continue as China continues to rise as an economic power. This provides for a secure market with good financial indicators that investment would respond favorably and quickly. The per capita gross income at 6600. 0 is also high making it easier for BSI plc to invest widely. The disposable income at 2. 60 represents a China’s purchasing power. BSI plc would be able to promote its products and the conditions are favorable for household spending. The continued rise in GDP growth will increase the spending habits of the population as the disposable income becomes more elastic. Inflation would negatively affect BSI plc and that is why the low inflation rate in China provides for market security against rising of prices. In china the population has continued to increase its cosmetics buying. At 46. 80 the population indicates a sizable spending on cosmetics. This creates a potential for BSI plc to garner a market share. China presents some difficulties in terms of ease of conducting business and economic freedom. However, foreign investment is still welcome and the government has opened the doors for foreign investment. Argentina is one of the countries in South America that have been experiencing economic growth. It therefore presents itself as a great target market. Its population of in 2009 was 40. 1 Million. The population growth is not very high at 1. 17 but the country has a viable market population. Argentina has an income distribution of 51. 90. This indicates that the distribution of purchasing power is high and standardized. BSI plc therefore can anticipate a wide market for its products without having to cater for a specialize clientele. Argentina’s mean age stands at 30. In the age demographics, Argentina’s largest age bracket is the 15-64 years at 63. 5% with the men standing at 12,961,725 while the women stand at 13,029,265 (The World Fact Book. 2010). For BSI plc this creates a large market since beauty products are usually consumed by this age group. According to The World Fact Book (2010) Argentina population is educated with a literacy rate of 97. %. This is a good indicator that beauty products would be well received and are a part of the population that can appreciate its use. Argentina’s growth of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was at 0. 20 in 2009. This GDP is low. This provides for a less secure market whereby BSI plc’s investment may take longer to respond favorably and quickly. Despite the global economic crisis Argentina and most of the Latin America were not acutely affected. The per capita gross income at 10200. 0 is also high making it easier for BSI plc to invest widely. The disposable income at 1. 0 represents a moderate purchasing power for Argentina. BSI plc would be able to promote its products as the conditions give room for moderate household spending. Inflation would which would negatively affect BSI plc stands at 4. 20. In Argentina spending on cosmetics has also increased although it is at 25. 40. This means BSI plc still has potential to make an investment in Argentina’s existing market. At 127. 0 Argentina represents favorable ease with which BSI plc can do business in Argentina. It also has good economic freedom. Foreign investment is welcome. Contacts and Competitive Analysis  Contacts are important in that they would allow BSI plc to gather information that is relevant to its venture. That is why the chamber of commerce assists foreign companies conducting business their country. It also offers its members relevant business contacts and information about Argentina. Through events and opportunities the Chamber also enables businesses to meet with government officials and key players thus facilitating relations. Contact with the ministry of foreign affairs is also important to BSI plc. The ministry is responsible for trade agreements and policies. By having the Ministry’s contacts, BSI plc can make necessary plans to attend and benefit from the ministry’s consular and diplomatic activities. As the ministry seeks businesses and companies that would increase investment in their country, BSI plc would have an opportunity to market itself to the target countries. Contacts of possible suppliers, importers and buyers are helpful so that a company can establish business relations within the industry. The choice of Alibaba Company is ideal in that it is a recognizable global distributor with very strong financial and corporate growth according to Alibaba. om. (1999-2010). China Target Market potential The market potential in China is quite high at 2530500000. This is calculated from number of potential consumers, the frequency with which the consumers buy in a year and the price of the product. This represents the potential of the cosmetic industry in China which BSI plc targets. Company Sales Potential BSI plc sales potential is dependent on the market share it will capture out of the potential market. If BSI plc secures a market share of 13. 5 %, it will estimate whether it can meet the demand of its target. Competitors Analysis  Lush Company provides competition for BSI plc. According to Lush (19950-2010) its main product is body butter. The location of its headquarters is in China providing it with advantages of proximity. BSI plc is localized and thus there are policies that favor it against foreign companies. This helps it keep its prices affordable. Lush has been in business for the past 32 years giving it long experience in the industry. Lush Company caters to the local market in China and has specialized in the product demands of the local population and tailored the product to suit the particular needs of the Chinese target market. Its employees number 1200 giving it good human resource. Lush has also invested in e-commerce offering customers its products even where it does not have retails and wholesaler stores. They vary their prices in response to the market. In their promotion strategy Lush aims to protect its reputation and maintain its image. Their products they have chosen to use to promote the quality of their product is care butter, Tuca Tuca perfume, Tuca Tuca massage oil, and Black stocking. Regulatory Environment for the industry In China, the regulatory environment would regulate cosmetic products. This is because although a company would use the Automatic import licensing granting its cosmetics products freedom from import controls, the importation of materials like plastic need monitoring. FDI regulations and implications for BSI plc China is becoming the greatest receipient of FDI and as such it is poised for economic growth and increased capital that places BSI plc in a great position for growth if it makes investment. The government regulates foreign investment according to WTO regulations and its economic goals where China is now quite open to and is keen to attract foreign investors. Argentina Target Market potential The market potential in Argentina is high at 41250000. This is calculated from number of potential consumers, the frequency with which the consumers buy in a year and the price of the product. This represents the potential of the cosmetic industry in Argentina. Company Sales Potential BSI plc sales potential is dependent on the market share it will capture out of the potential market. If BSI plc secures a market share of 3. 5 %, it will estimate whether it can meet the demand of its target. Competitors Analysis L’ Occitane Company provides competition for BSI plc. Its main product is mini shea butter/L’ Occitane body toner. According to The body Shop (2009) BSI plc deals with sweet almond oil in its moisturizers. The location of its headquarters is in Argentina providing it with advantages of proximity. BSI plc is localized and thus there are policies that favor it against foreign companies. This helps it keep its prices affordable. L’ Occitane has been in business for the past 34 years giving it long experience in the industry. L’ Occitane Company caters to the local market in Argentina and has specialized in the product demands of the local population and tailored the product to suit the particular needs of the Argentinean target market. Its employees number 2000 giving it great human resource. L’ Occitane has also invested in e-commerce offering customers its products even where it does not have retails and wholesaler stores. They vary their prices in response to the market. L’ Occitane uses advertising, personal sale and product promotions as its promotional strategy. The products it uses include shea cocoa butter, Almont body care, verbena liquid soup honey and lemon scented and summer Travil Hair care. Its target market is 14 years and above both male and female. Regulatory Environment for the industry In Argentina, one of the key regulations would be in business conduct and tradition. Companies have to publish their Technical barriers to trade (TBT) measures. It contains duty and obligations related to the business and operation of TBT investigation Points. Companies have to confirm their recognition of the Code of Good Practice. Argentina the Bureau of Customs is the governmental agency is strict in the enforcement of the tariff and Customs laws and regulations. Importation of goods is governed by a numerous of import policy. FDI regulations and implications for BSI plc Argentina is currently not attracting much foreign investment due to its slow economic development and inflation rate. Although the government is using the WTO regulations and working hard to increase investment, there is difficulty for foreign companies because of high interest rates.

Days of delivery (narrative) Essay -- essays research papers

Pregnancy and childbirth are a part of nature. Delivering a child can be a beautiful experience. However, delivery can also be very painful and can last for days.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My mom drove me to what would become my last visit to the doctor’s office before giving birth to my daughter. Dr. Dermer observed me and then told me to be at the hospital around six thirty that evening. He advised me to eat a good dinner before departing for the hospital. Dr. Dermer had decided to induce my labor, due to the fact that I was two weeks past my due date.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I ate a good dinner and left to go to the hospital. I distinctly remember the feeling that I had in the pit of my stomach. I could not determine if the feeling was fear, anxiety, relief, or a combination of all of them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When I arrived at the hospital the first thing that I had to do was register. Registration only took a few minutes because Dr. Dermer had already phoned the registration department and pre-registered me. I was now on my way to Labor and Delivery.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As soon as I arrived in the labor and delivery department, I saw Brian, the father of my unborn child, and his best friend Chris. I was relieved to know that he had already arrived at the hospital. One of the nurses came over and escorted us to my room. She told me to undress and put my hospital gown on. After I put my gown on, I climbed into the bed. The nurse then proceeded to stick me with needles. She had to withdraw some blood and start my IVs. She explained that the medicine in my IV bag was going to very slowly induce my labor overnight. The nurse also explained to me that this process was to prepare my body for the following morning when my medication would be increased. A short while later, I fell asleep.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I was awakened the next morning by beeps from the IV machine. The beeps were caused from the nurse increasing the dosage of my medication. At this time, I had no idea of the day that I had ahead of me.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Around eleven that morning, I began to feel light flutters deep inside my stomach. The flutters felt as if they were rising to the surface of my stomach. Once the flutters arrived at the surface, they then seemed to pull on the surface of my stomach. The pull was a very light pull and it ac... ...rmer stated at that time that if I had not dilated anymore by three that he would have to go ahead and perform a cesarean.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At five minutes until three the nurse checked me once again. I had still only dilated four centimeters. She paged Dr. Dermer and he told her to go ahead and prepare for the cesarean. Dr. Dermer came in at five minutes after three and checked me one last time. I had dilated nine centimeters. Dr. Dermer said â€Å"We won’t be doing a cesarean today, she is going to have this baby.† He told me to slide down to the bottom of the bed and put my feet in the stirrups. A minute later he said he could feel the baby’s head. Every one was telling me to push. I grasped the handles on the side of my bed tightly and I pushed with all of my might. My daughter was born at 3:36 p.m. Brian and I had already picked out her name. We named her Courtney Brooke.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nine years have passed since my unforgettable experience with childbirth. I love my daughter dearly and I will always cherish the memories of my three-day delivery process but believe me when I say that I will not experience the excruciating pain of childbirth again.

Personality & Attitudes on Revenge in the General Population of Scotland Essay

Fantasies vary from person to person and are dependent on psychological condition. In a clinical population fantasies tend to last longer than in non-clinical populations. Although overall each fantasy has been reported to last relatively short periods of time, the frequency of which they occur is usually the factor that determines whether they are of concern or not (Gellerman and Suddath, 2005). There seems to be a limited quantity of research available on the general understanding of this topic however the literature that does exist appears to focus on three particular areas, sustaining fantasies – as a means of coping with painful and stressful situations in the general population but particularly in the clinical population (Zelin, Bernstein, Heijn, Jampel, Myerson, Adler, Buie & Rizzuto, 1983; Harder & Zelin, 1984; Greenwald & Harder, 1994; Greenwald & Harder, 1995 & Greenwald and Harder, 1997); aggressive fantasies – for pleasure or satisfaction in the general popu lation but more often than not habitually involuntary for the clinical population and generally violent, sexual and sadistic in nature (Gellerman & Suddath, 2005; Egan & Campbell, 2009 & Selby, Anestis & Joiner (2007), and finally, revenge fantasies – concerning those who have experienced trauma (Mardi & Harowitz, 2007). In search of material for this review surprise has it that homicidal fantasies on the whole is the one of which focuses on a more simple view of its apparent natural occurrence in natural surroundings of everyday life, and highlights the evolving acceptance that many normal law abiding citizens can and do have fantasies. Sustaining Fantasy From a study conducted by Zelin et al (1983) the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire (SFQ) was developed to measure sustaining functions in psychiatric inpatients in comparison with non-patients. This questionnaire was constructed specifically to measure fantasies of death, withdrawal, restitution, suffering, God, closeness, power and revenge, admiration of self, competition and aesthetics. The questionnaire was then utilised to determine that psychiatric inpatients scored higher than non-patients on fantasies of death, withdrawal, restitution, suffering, God and closeness but fantasies of power and revenge, admiration of self, competition and aesthetics did not differentiate between groups. Thus, suggesting that the questionnaire was able to differentiate the groups by fantasy factors such as death, withdrawal, restitution, suffering, God and closeness and highlighted associations of power and revenge, admiration of self, competition and aesthetics with an independent measure of psycho logy. It is said that experiencing Sustaining Fantasies is a familiar, consistent and repetitive conscious fantasy adopted to help cope with feelings of a painful and stressful situation. According to Zelin et al (1983) the sustaining fantasy is a concept based on the observation that at times of extreme negative emotional states, caused by anger or narcissistic grievance, people often resort to this as a means of re-creating a more ideal situation than that of which stimulated the painful experience, fabricating a sense of satisfaction, restoring self-esteem and emotional equilibrium, and decreasing frustration. Ultimately, the sustaining fantasy is based on the assumption that such fantasies signify and demonstration the basic construction and processes that have evolved in the course of efforts to adapt to painful situations. We are reminded by Zelin et al (1983) that this fantasy is of a specific type called only into play when suffering increasing levels of stress, and should not be c onfused by those fantasies used as a disguised endeavour of pleasure or solutions to relatively un-stressful problems, such studies will be discussed later in the review. One year on, Harder & Zelin (1984) furthered the study of Zelin et al (1983) accepting that the sustaining fantasy questionnaire was developed primarily with psychiatric inpatients, but recognising also, the potential for its use in testing correlates among a more general sample. Assuming that everyone uses sustaining fantasies to aid or support themselves through highly stressful periods in life and presuming the importance of this factor in the capability to manage adaptively rather than maladaptively, Harder & Zelin (1984) extended interests and investigations into the personality functioning in the general population as well as with pathological persons. They did this by examining the relationship between the 10 types of sustaining fantasies reported by Zelin et al (1983) and two dimensions of self-concept – self-derogation and stability of self-concept, suspecting that the type of sustaining fantasy that the person characteristically brings into play will be consistent with and in support of their self-concept, an important relation with psychological-social adjustment and even a potential determinant of psychological-social adjustment. Successfully, the results demonstrated that the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire was reliable not only to differentiate between groups of psychiatric inpatients from normal controls, as Zelin et al (1983) demonstrated, but also to distinguish the group of college students used in this study. Just over a decade later Greenwald & Harder (1994) followed on from Zelin et al (1983), attempting to examine the expected associations between psychopathology, almost replicating exactly, apart from their use of a student population primarily from a middle-class backgrounds. In addition, Greenwald & Harder (1994) questioned if the sustaining fantasy scales associated with weaker functioning, reflects a more general pathology factor as proposed in the data of Zelin et al (1983) or, whether each reflects a particular maladaptive style that is signified by an exceptional construction of associations with the MMPI clinical scales. Further support and reliability of Zelin et al (1983) is strengthened in Greenwald & Harder’s (1994) findings that power/revenge, death/illness, withdrawal/protection and suffering are all related significantly to two of the MMPI measures of overall psychopathology, therefore four of the six fantasy types that imply psychopathology in the inpatients (Ze lin et al, 1983) were too the indicators of pathology in the study using the middle-class students. Considering all of the previously mentioned studies (Zelin et al, 1983; Harder & Zelin, 1984; Greenwald & Harder, 1994) it seems fair to say that ample evidence has been gathered to show that definite types of sustaining fantasy ideas, characteristically used to comfort the self when experiencing feelings of hurt and stress, are associated with indications of psychopathological adjustment. The aim for Greenwald & Harder (1995) was then to examine to what extent there are parallels between them and the degree to which such content ideas may well point out psychopathology. With reference to past research on daydreaming, where Singer & Antrobus (1972) have suggested that particular collections of imagery content appear to propose less favourable styles, there seems to be similarities with the findings of Zelin et al (1983), although they did emphasise the difference between other fantasies such as daydreams and remind us not to confuse them. Contrary to this emphasis and that of Zelin et al (1983), clinical impressions have proposed that in more ways than one, the overall content of these two types of fantasies is rather parallel. As a result of this proposal, Greenwald & Harder (1995) investigated whether sustaining fantasies generally show a strong similarity to the typical daydreams preferred by an individual, or whether there really is a movement from the content of ordinary daydreams to the familiar self-comforting ones that provide support during feelings of pain and stress. To do this they compared the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire and the numerous Imaginal Process Inventory (IPI) (Singer & Antrobus, 1972) scales for correspondence in content and in their relationships to measures of psychopathology, and a great deal of consistency was discovered even when partialling for social desirability. It was concluded that there was in fact considerable overlap in the content and of correspondence between both, sustaini ng fantasy and daydreams, and furthermore, it was highlighted that three particular IPI scales were observed to give significant indications of psychopathology – fear reaction, bizarre and hostile. Despite the delight in these findings Greenwald & Harder (1995) speculated the possibility that rather than the findings being a result of specific content they may be the result of a broad level of association between the two scales. In pursuit of this speculation further analysis detected the average degree of correlation between SFQ and IPI characteristics in comparison to the level of association displayed by those relationships they predicted, finding that although there was no significance, there was a trend toward significance. Thus, suggesting that a general commonality between the SFQ and the IPI may have been a factor in contributing to the extent of their success in predictions for the study. On this note one should be reminded that for the purpose of reliability and validity, considering an underlying weakness alongside the success is vital for future study in terms of recognising the possibility for individuals to very well fantasize and daydream simultaneously in ordinary and/or stressful situations. It is now becoming apparent that sustaining fantasies are perhaps not quite as specific from other fantasies in particular situations such as coping with stressful matters, as was first thought, or, that if they are, they do not always emerge completely alone. Based on the results of this study Greenwald & Harder (1995) propose the question of whether it would be beneficial to use the findings of their study, subsequent past research, to investigate clinical manipulation of the content and/or frequency of fantasy having therapeutic effects, bearing in mind the given definition of sustaining fantasy in Zelin et al (1983) at the beginnings of this extensive research. To address the proposed questions that emerged from Greenwald & Harder (1995) they conducted another study in 1997 replicating the previously discussed studies and replicating reported relationships between coping behaviours and psychopathology however, this time they utilised measurement instruments that were developed by different investigators, presented different response formats, and were not developed to measure the same content areas as before. They assessed whether consistent relationships exist between the content of self-reported coping behaviours, sustaining fantasies, and ordinary daydreams and in addition attempted to identify coping behaviours associated with psychopathology, exploring any connections between coping behaviours, fantasies, and daydreams correlated with pathology. Pearson correlations indicated similar content between coping behaviours and the two types of fantasy and significant inter-correlations were found between sustaining fantasies, daydreams, and coping behaviours that, separately, were found to be significantly associated with psychopathology. In the process of this investigation, and with influencing thoughts created by the previous workings, Greenwald and Harder (1997) took into consideration the likelihood to expect there would be a consistency between the region of fantasy and behaviour, and that individuals would report thoughts and action in parallel ways but then again, consider also that it is also probable to anticipate that fantasies could serve as a substitute for action, and that a report of specific fantasy content might be inversely associated with behaviour that contains similar content. Growing in strength, again the results of Greenwald & Harder (1997) were successful in that there is a significant association with regard to the content among self-reported daydreams, sustaining fantasies, and coping behaviours, even after controlling for social desirability. These results are found to be more influential due to the fact that they were obtained with assessment instruments that were developed by different investigators, used different response formats, and were not developed to measure the same content areas. Therefore, this information suggest that, while there may be some instances of fantasies and behaviours that relate inversely to each other, fantasies usually are consistent with behavioural coping styles. These findings then highlight that there is a complex of daydreams, fantasies, and behavioural responses that could be used to characterize individuals. Furthermore, to generalize the findings of this study it was recommended that future studies should be conducted with other subject populations that take into account age, culture, socioeconomic status and residence environment (Greenwald & Harder, 1997), however, it seems appropriate to mention that perhaps at this point it is a good time to look at how the sustaining fantasy ideology has branched out to embrace other influencing factors. Aggressive Fantasies Egan & Campbell (2009) expanded research on sustaining fantasies almost taking it to a new level by selecting a diverse population, as recommended by Greenwald & Harder (1997), but more importantly taking into account other domains that showed potential to reveal relationships from another angle. Such were, sensational topics, general personality traits, and self-reported physical aggression. They found relationships between sensational interests and physical aggression, regardless of gender. Personality and the application of negative sustaining fantasies significantly forecast physical aggression. When the SFQ was reduced to three higher order factors; positive, negative, and narcissistic sustaining fantasies, correlations were found between neuroticism (N) and both positive and negative sustaining fantasies, although the association was stronger for negative fantasies. There were small associations between positive sustaining fantasies and indirect non-physical hostility although these relations were humble, and openness (O) was a stronger predictor. Narcissistic sustaining fantasies related to low levels of agreeableness (A), replicating associations between low A and narcissism generally. Ultimately proposing that aggressive and hostile persons are more stimulated by violent stimuli and that isolation is a further risk-increasing factor for aggressive interests. Following on from this conclusion of risk-increasing factors, attention was directed back a few years in literature to a study conducted by Gellerman & Suddath (2005). They discussed risk-increasing factors in relation to questioning at what point would a health professional perhaps become concerned with a person’s fantasy enough for it to become their duty to forewarn or protect others from potential dangerousness, or even attempt to protect the person from them self. In the health profession an evaluation of dangerousness includes not only asking about violent fantasies but also asking about physical and sexual content (Gellerman & Suddath, 2005). Gellerman and Suddath (2005) looked at the conditions in which the disclosure of violent fantasies to a mental health professional may generate cause for concern and a duty to warn or protect other citizens. Reviewing legal cases in which violent fantasies were considered in the context of measuring potential dangerousness and the literature available on homicidal and sexually violent fantasies in both non-incarcerated and criminal populations was also examined. It was concluded that no dependable predictive relationship between violent fantasies and wickedly hazardous behaviour was reported in the available literature and suggestions of issues that mental health professionals may think about when gauging whether a particular violent fantasy is a sign for concern requiring rise to a duty in protecting others. At last, this paper is very interesting in that it is greatly unbiased and clearly discusses both the harmful aspects of fantasy as well as the innocent or un-harmful aspects, thus showing the importance of distinguishing between the two possibilities, which must be said, is something that is lacking in the papers previously reviewed. Gellerman and Suddath (2005) explained in detail the definition of violent fantasy for the purpose of their paper which must be credited as again, not many papers in this field have done so. They expressed their perception of violent fantasy as a thought in which an individual imagines physically harming a fellow human being in some way. They explain that the content of individual fantasies may vary from anything such as murder, sexual assault, or inappropriate sexual activity. It is emphasised that fantasy must be distinguished from an intention, in that the imaginary violence is not instantaneously designed to guide or prepare for action. On the other hand, it is said that any expression of intention to harm another person is when we should have cause for concern as this is without doubt communicating a â€Å"threat† rather than a fantasy. Gellerman and Suddath (2005) noted two important points in terms of distinguishing between fantasy being harmless or harmful, firstly, while not instantaneously aimed at guiding action, fantasy has been illustrated as serving a number of clinical functions, including control and relief of anxiety and substitution for action therefore harmless to others and at the same time very useful to the fantasizer, secondly, from a harmful perspective fantasy may also be preparation for action and it is from this perspective that concern should be heightened in the evaluation of dangerousness and the duty to protect. Gellerman and Suddath (2005) go on to give balanced examples of both harmless and harmful fantasies. In their comparisons of both sides and in both populations, un-incarcerated and criminal, together with their overall review of the literature they used, they suggest that as fantasies of murder were fairly common in general Western European and American populations, and a range of fantasies of aggression and sexual violence were less common, but were by no means rare, people should bear in mind that this high prevalence of homicidal and sexually aggressive fantasy can only make us question then, to what extent can such fantasies be considered deviant. In addition it should be highlighted that Gellerman and Suddath (2005) found that existing studies have evidently established that many more individuals have homicidal and sexually violent fantasies than act on them. The relationship between violent fantasy and behaviour in these studies was correlative at best, and no suggestions were given in attempt to identifying the minority of individuals with violent fantasies who may be at risk of acting them out. Altogether, it was concluded that predictors better than fantasies alone are the eminence of the fantasies, the concern with them, and the level of preparation and detail, and the history of any past violent behaviours all need to be looked at collectively (Gellerman & Suddath, 2005). Another study of interest where aggressive fantasies seek personal pleasure but in a paradoxical way is that of Selby, Anestis & Joiner (2007). They reported that suicidal individuals regularly report the reoccurrence of fantasy where they can visualise their death by suicide very clearly in their imagination, almost like watching it on TV. Selby et al (2007) found that many unremittingly suicidal individuals are thought to have a romantic affection for death and as a result, connect themselves in vivid fantasies or daydreams about the process and the after-effects. This somewhat idealistic thought process even appears to be a pleasant motion for them. In desperation of escape from torment and pain (Baumeister, 1990), it seems that the act of suicide is the answer and therefore thinking about the liberation that death would present, perhaps enables suicidal individuals to experience positive affects similar to that of non-suicidal individuals daydreaming or fantasizing about future life events such as holidays (Selby et al, 2007). This daydreaming may actually be a form of emotion dysregulation, in suicidal individuals, one that would appear, perhaps paradoxically, to increase positive affect yet may increase later risk for serious suicidal behaviour. This psychological state was also considered by Zelin et al (1983). Revenge Fantasies Suicidal behaviour, just like the fantasies they provoke, vary in content and from person to person however for the purpose of this review it should be mentioned that revenge fantasies among many other things, can often be the cause for suicidal behaviour (Mardi & Harowitz, 2007). In one way the reason behind the fantasies are similar per se; feelings of rage shame guilt etc., but in another way very different; often unwanted and uncontrollable. Revenge fantasies are described as being beyond normal bitter thoughts and sometimes dangerous. The study conducted by Mardi & Harowitz (2007) was an attempt to seek solutions to a hypothetical case demonstrating a problem existing in clinical practice. The method behind this is for the authors to review current data on prevalence, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment and ultimately conclude treatment recommendations. Again it is brought to attention that the quantity of literature addressing fantasy is limited, Mardi & Harowitz (2007) pointed out at the beginning of their paper that revenge fantasies have been discussed in literature, however not adequately addressed, a problem common for most papers in this review. Like all other fantasies per se, revenge fantasies can provide a sense of reinstated purpose and regain of control in an otherwise traumatized life and purely for this purpose it is imperative to assist traumatized individuals in recognizing this. Mardi & Harowitz (2007) split the scenario up into sections in sequence to how step by step the scenario would be assessed and addressed in a clinical setting. All important techniques and procedures were discussed such as, the importance of techniques in psychotherapy being put in place with the much needed interpretations and reappraisals and with careful differentiation of rational and irrational beliefs. It was explained that it is then, that the function of revenge fantasies as giving an illusion of strength can be interpreted. Mardi & Harowitz (2007) suggest the fact that the results of therapy may be attenuation of symptoms, and revenge fantasies are deep-rooted, there is an important need for informing the patients that revenge fantasies are likely to return, and are frequently generated by things as simple as seeing a movie, being hurt, or entering an irritated mood as a result of fatigue. Mardi & Harowitz (2007) go on to explain that the professional should help the patient plan a comeback, which can engage in reviewing a pre-established set of ideas, overall they express that their goal is to help the patient gain a sense of restored control, self-esteem, and self-coherence without resorting to the ‘strong-me’ property of a revenge fantasy. Taking into account the apparent lack of topic specific resources that provide general information on the influences of fantasy in the general public, and the gaps that seem wide open between studies in fantasy, it seems fair to say that the beginning would be a good place to start. As a result the current study will seek to investigate attitudes of the general public toward fantasies, looking to find out what they think fantasies might be and to what extent they think it is normal for people to have them. It will be hypothesised that most people will believe that a fantasy is a mere thought of imagination detached from reality to satisfy emotional desires without logical or moral constraints and likewise most people will agree that it is normal to have fantasies. It is expected that more people will agree, than disagree, that it is ok and can be accepted as normal for people to have homicidal fantasies. Method Design A between-participants point biserial correlation will be used to analyse the data. The independent variables will be the self report personality inventory (IPIP-NEO) and the attitude measuring questions and the dependent variable will be participants score on the IPIP-NEO and the attitude score. Variables such as gender, age, marital status, housing tenure, regions, employment status, income bracket and criminal convictions will also be considered in relation to participant response to both independent variables. Participants According to G Power participant number should be 191, however, for an equal balance, it will be at least 100 males and 100 females. The male and female participants will be ages of or between 21 and 65, and split between four regions (Glasgow, Paisley, Edinburgh & Dundee). Apparatus Participant information sheets (PIS) and consent forms will be given along with questionnaires that will be used to measure psychopathic personality traits (IPIP-NEO) and attitudes on aggressive revenge fantasies. Each participant will be given the same questionnaire to complete. The statistical analysis programme SPSS will be used to analyse and correlate the data. Procedure Each participant will be given a brief introduction of the study and asked if they are willing to take part, if they are willing then they will be asked to carefully read the PIS, sign the consent form, which will be detached from the questionnaire as they will be anonymous, and complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of a self-report personality inventory, the International Personality Item Pool – NEO (IPIP-NEO) developed by Witt, Donnellan & Blonigen (2009), of which permission for use was granted by Edward A. Witt. This 40 item inventory will measure the psychopathic personality traits of fearless dominance (20 items) and Impulsive Antisociality (20 items) to assess how high or low participants score in comparison with each other. A four-option multiple response (False, Mostly False, Mostly True, True) format and a Likert-type scale will be used (False = 1, Mostly False = 2, Mostly True = 3, True = 4) to measure the data. In exception, the 1st, 4th, 9th, 14th, 15th,16th and 17th questions of Fearless Dominance will be measured in reverse scale. The second part of the questionnaire consists of 10 questions regarding attitudes toward people having revenge fantasies. Again, a four-option multiple response (strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree) format and a Likert-type scale will be used (strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, agree = 3, strongly agree = 4) to measure the data. Reference Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as Escape from Self. Psychological Review, 97, 90-113. 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